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The urinary tract is the set of organs whose main function is the production and urination (1) (2). It consists of two kidneys, two ureters, bladder and urethra (1). The structure through which emerge from the ureter, blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves of the kidney is called renal hilar (1).

Urinary Organs
Taken from Rush University Medical Center
http://www.rush.edu/spanish/images/si_0273.gif

Kidneys
The kidneys are paired organs located in the abdomen on both sides of the spine, approximately at T12 and L3 (a) (2). Is said to be an organ retroperitonial because its location is posterior to the peritoneum of the abdominal cavity (2). The right kidney is at a lower level to the left due to the presence of the liver (2) (4). The typical size is 10 to 12 cm long, 5 to 7 cm wide and 3 cm thick (1). Average weight of 130 to 150 grams (2).

Internally, the kidney shows two distinct regions: a reddish surface and smooth texture called renal cortex and a deeper color called pardorojizo medulla (1). Each renal medulla is formed by 8 to 18 renal pyramids. These structures have a conical shape, whose base is in the direction of the renal cortex and its vertex, called renal papillae, facing the renal hilum. Between each pyramid are extensions of the renal cortex called renal columns. The concept of renal lobe relates to a renal pyramid, part of the cortex that surrounds it and half of each adjacent column (1). Each pyramid schemes

a small depression called minor calyx. Several minor calyces unite to form a larger cup. The union of the major calyces form the renal pelvis (3).

Some authors suggest that the parenchyma (functional portion) of the kidney is formed by the cortex and renal pyramids (1). Others mention all the renal medulla (2). The area known as the renal sinus cavity within the kidney where the hilus opens. Contains part of the renal pelvis, calyces and branches of the blood vessels and nerves (1). Within the kidney, all structures are surrounded by fatty tissue that helps to stabilize it in position (1) (2).

internal kidney structures
jnanayoga3.tripod.com Taken
http://jnanayoga3.tripod.com/sa/rinon1.jpg

The kidney is covered by three layers. The renal fibrous capsule is the deepest. The capsule fat and fascia or renal fascia is the most superficial (1). Are innervated by the renal nerves originate in the celiac ganglion sympathetic autonomic nervous system (2). These nerves form the renal plexus and innervate mostly blood vessels (2). Its irrigation is carried out through the right and left renal arteries, which originate in the abdominal aorta. Venous return of the kidney occurs through the right and left renal veins and are drained to the inferior vena cava (2). As noted above, the ureters, arteries, veins, lymph vessels and nerves emerge through the renal hilum.

Ureters, bladder and urethra

The ureters are small tubes that carry urine from the pelvis of a kidney through the hilum and to the bladder (1). Are approximately 35 and 45 cm long and about 0.3 cm in diameter. Perform peristalsis (wavelike contractions and periodic) to move urine to the bladder (3) (4), however the hydrostatic pressure and gravity also contribute to transport (1). The ureters are also considered retroperitoneal (2) and has three layers called the mucosa (innermost), muscular (smooth muscle) and adventitia (connective tissue vessels and nerves). The

bladder is a storage bag of urine (3). It is a hollow organ, distensible, muscular located in the pelvic cavity (1). In men is anterior to the rectum and the vagina women before and below the uterus (1). The bladder has a valve at the entrance of each ureter (1). Reflux of urine is controlled by the pressure exerted on the holes when the bladder is full (1). When this mechanism is not working properly, microorganisms can move up and get to where they can cause kidney infections. The average capacity is 700 to 800 ml (1). It has three layers, the deeper the mucosal Then the tunica media or the detrusor muscle and the outer adventitia call (1). Around the urethral orifice, forming internal and external sphincters of the urethra, the second in a lower position.

The urethra is the small tube that extends from the internal urethral opening to the outside of the body. Both men and women represents the final portion of the urinary tract (1). In women with an approximate length to 4cms and ends in the space between the labia minora. In men is approximately 20 cm and ends at the tip of the penis (1).

renal blood vessels

As noted above, arterial blood enters the kidney through the renal artery . This is divided into segmental arteries at the renal sinus (1) (2). At the level of renal columns (between the pyramids), the segmental arteries divide into interlobar arteries (1) (2) (3). In the limit of the cortex and medulla, the interlobar arteries divide into arcuate arteries (3), once they cross the renal cortex is subdivided into interlobular arteries (2) (3), which are named because they spend between kidney structures called lobules (1).

interlobular arteries are divided into efferent arterioles and afferents that form a special capillary network where the blood is drained through another arteriole rather than a venule (3). This structure is called the glomerular capillary or glomerulus that is considered part of the cardiovascular and urinary tract (1).

renal arteries Diagram
Monografias.com Taken
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos32/insuficiencia-renal/insuficiencia-renal.shtml

The efferent arterioles give rise to a second network called the peritubular capillaries (2). These are located around the renal tubules and are coupled to peritubular venules form (1) which in turn are coupled in interlobular veins (3). Then the blood is drained into the veins arcuate and interlobular veins in luento found between the renal pyramids (1), adjacent to the arteries of the same name. Interlobular veins join and leave the kidney as a unique renal venal ends in the inferior vena cava (3).

Nefrona

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney (1) (3) (4) (5) and is responsible for the formation of urine (3). Each kidney contains about one million nephrons (1) (3) (4), each composed of small tubules and blood vessels (3). The proximal nephron is composed of the glomerulus, proximal tubule and descending loop of Henle. The distal nephron contains the ascending loop of Henle, distal tubule and collecting tubule (5).

nephron structure
emagister.com Taken
http://grupos.emagister.com/imagen/nefrona/1102-129599

Another way to describe the components of the nephron is divided into renal corpuscle consists of the glomerulus and the glomerular capsule (or capsule of Bowman) and renal tubules formed by the proximal tubule, loop of Henle and distal tubule (1) (3).

The loop of Henle is a U coming down to the renal medulla (1) (3). The renal corpuscle and proximal and distal tubules are considered part of the renal cortex (1). The collecting duct, which receives the liquid from the distal tubules of the nephron, also flows through the renal cortex, which is called the papillary duct and finally reach one of the minor calyces of the renal pyramids (1).

Diagram of the Bowman capsule
Taken from the blog of medicine and pharmacology
http://medicinafarmacologia.blogspot.com/2009/08/capsula-de-bowman.html

glomerular capsule has a visceral layer that surrounds the glomerular capillaries and an outer parietal layer. Visceral layer contains epithelial cells called podocytes.

The space between the two layers are attached to the proximal tubule and it is precisely in this space where it is deposited glomerular filtration rate (3). Afferent and efferent arterioles enter and exit through the vascular pole of the glomerulus, while the filtrate exits the urinary pole (5).

The number of nephrons is constant from birth. The kidney enlargement is due to the growth of individual nephrons and not because the structures are capable of reproducing (1). They can also be adapted to handle a heavier load than usual, for example when one kidney is removed (1).

juxtaglomerular apparatus

the juxtaglomerular apparatus is the region of each nephron where the afferent arteriole in contact with the last portion of the loop of Henle (3). It consists of the macula densa and juxtaglomerular cells (a) (5). The macula densa is the set of columnar epithelial cells along the distal tubule and have the characteristic of being very close together between them (1). The juxtaglomerular cells are found to along the afferent arterioles and their walls contain smooth muscle (1).

(BC) Bowman's capsule (Pod) podocytes (MD) Dense Bone (JG),
juxta glomerular cells (DC) Distal convoluted tubule
Taken from http://
Medical Histology
www.medicalhistology.us/twiki/bin/view/Main/UrinarySystemAtlas17

juxtaglomerular cells, too (called epithelioid) secrete renin (1). The macula densa is composed of epithelial cells are in contact with the glomerular vascular pole (5). References



(1) Tortora, Gerald. Derrickson, Bryan. 2006. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 11 th. Edition. Editorial Médica Panamericana. Mexico DF. Mexico. Cap 26.

(2) Cutillas Arroyo, Blanca. Urinary System: Anatomy. Virtual infermeria. Barcelona, \u200b\u200bSpain.
Available online:
http://www.infermeravirtual.com/ca-es/activitats-de-la-vida-diaria/la-persona/dimensio-biologica/sistema-urinari/pdf/sistema-urinari.pdf

(3) Fox, Stuart. 2008. Human Physiology. 10 th edition. Editorial McGrawHill. Madrid, Spain. Cap 17.

(4) Montalvo Diago, Jane A. Anthology Human Physiology. American University. San Jose, Costa Rica.

(5) Bustos, Jorge. Presentation of Renal Physiology. Human Physiology course. American University. San Jose, Costa Rica.

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Urinary Anatomy and Physiology of Heart Joints

The heart is the muscular pump that provides the energy needed to move blood through the blood vessels (2). It is roughly the same size as your fist, but not the same. It measures about 12cms long, 9 wide, and 6 thick. It has an average weight of 250g and 300g in adult women and men respectively (a) (2).

This organ is located in the mediastinum, a mass of tissue extends from the sternum to the spine and between the lungs (1). Rests on the diaphragm and two thirds are to the left of the midline of the body.

Location Taken Heart
Anatomy Physiology and Surgery, Dr. Miguel Noguera
http://mignog.ar.tripod.com/clases/pleura3.html

pericardium and heart wall layers

The heart is surrounded by a membrane called the pericardium (a) (2), whose function is to keep the body in position while granting freedom movements for rapid and vigorous contraction (1). The pericardium is divided into two parts:

• Fibrous Pericardium: superficial part consists of connective tissue, dense, regular, very elastic and resilient.
• Serous Pericardium: from deep, thin and delicate. It is divided into the parietal layer, which fuses with the fibrous pericardium and the visceral layer, also called the epicardium.

pericardial fluid secretion is a lubricant which is located between the parietal layer and visceral layer. Designed to reduce friction as the heart does beat. The space containing the liquid is called pericardial cavity (1) (2).

heart wall, located inside the pericardium, is divided into three layers: the epicardium, myocardium and endocardium. The epicardium, as indicated above is known as the visceral layer of serous pericardium consists of connective tissue. The myocardium is heart muscle tissue and is responsible for the heart's pumping action. The innermost layer is the endocardium is a thin layer of endothelium overlying a thin layer of connective tissue (1) (2). Heart Chambers



The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria or atria and two lower chambers are called ventricles. Each one of them is filled with blood at any given time. In the front of each atrium is a structure similar to a bag called atrial appendage. They increase slightly the capacity of the atria, allowing you to receive a greater volume of blood. On the surface you can see the coronary sulcus (surrounds most of the heart) and the anterior and posterior interventricular grooves that mark the divisions between left and right ventricles. (1)

Scheme with parts of the heart
Taken from the blog fourth thistle
http://cuarto-cardal.blogspot.com/2007/09/el-corazn-sus- partes.html

The atrium or right atrium receives blood from the superior vena cava, the inferior vena cava and coronary sinus (1) (2). The back wall is smooth while the trabeculated anterior wall is due to the presence of muscles pectinal, also seen in the right atrial appendage. Between the two atria is a thin wall called the interatrial septum. The blood passes from the right atrium to right ventricle through a tricuspid valve is called. This valve, like the others that will be mentioned later, is composed of dense connective tissue covered by endocardium. (1)

The right ventricle way most of the front of the heart (1) (2). Internally it contains a series of reliefs consisting of cardiac muscle fiber bundles called fleshy trabeculae. The tricuspid valve is connected to structures called chordae which in turn are connected to the papillary muscles. The right and left ventricles are separated by the interventricular septum. Blood passes from the right ventricle to the pulmonary trunk through the pulmonary valve. Their final destination is the lungs, where blood is oxygenated and then head to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins.

The atrium or left atrium form most of the base of the heart (1). Unlike the right atrium, it contains only pectineus atrial appendage (1). The blood enters the left ventricle through the mitral or bicuspid valve.

Diagram atrium and left ventricle
Taken from the site of Mitral Valve Repair Center
http://www.reparacionvalvularmitral.org/content/view/56/

The left ventricle forms the apex or apex of the heart (1). As the right ventricle, and strings containing fleshy trabeculae tendon connecting the mitral valve papillary muscles. When blood leaves the left ventricle, passing through the aortic valve into the ascending aorta. From this artery leaves the irrigation for the entire body, including the coronary arteries supplying the heart.

the tricuspid and mitral valves are called or auricoventriculares atrioventricular (AV). Pulmonary and aortic valves are called semilunar valves.

The muscular wall of the left ventricle is considerably thicker than the right because it must do more intensive work: to pump blood to more distant areas like the head and lower limbs (1).

Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

The heart pumps blood in two closed loops: the general systemic circulation or pulmonary circulation (1). The left side of the heart is the systemic circulation pump receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and ejects into the aorta. All organs receive blood through the artery except the lungs, which receive blood from the pulmonary circulation.

The right side of the heart is the pulmonary circulation pump, which receives oxygen-poor blood from the bodies and sent to the lungs to release carbon dioxide and oxygen reload.

Driving System

The heart has a network of specialized cardiac muscle fibers called automatic fibers. They are in charge of the intrinsic electrical activity and rhythm that allows the heart beating. These fibers generate action potentials in a repetitive and these in turn trigger heart contractions (1). It is generally said to have two important functions (1):

• Act as determining the rate of pacemaker electrical excitation
• Driving up the system for each excitation progress through the heart

Propagation of Action Potentials
Taken from youtube.com
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EgmyF5nKKEA

cardiac action potentials propagating along the conduction system as follows (1) (2):

1. begin in the sinoatrial node or sinoatrial (SA) , located in the right atrium just below the opening of vena cava superior.
2. It spreads through both atria through of gap junctions in the intercalated disks (1). Internodal pathways using anterior, medial and posterior (4).
3. Thanks to this action potential, both atria contract.

to 0.03 seconds have elapsed here

4. The action potential reaches the atrioventricular node , located in the atrial septum.
5. Here the impulse is delayed 0.09 seconds to ensure that the ventricles are completely filled.
6. It spreads through the His Bundle or atrioventricular bundle found in the interventricular septum. It has two branches, one right and one left for each the ventricles. This part of the process takes 0.04 seconds.

to 0.16 seconds have elapsed here

7. After spreading along the Bundle of His (both branches), the action potentials reach the Purkinje fibers , causing the contraction of the ventricles.

As you can see, the sinoatrial node is the main pacemaker of the heart. The fibers of this node initiate an action potential every 0.6 seconds (100 times per minute) (1) and although the autonomic nervous system and certain hormones can modify the frequency and strength of each beat, the rhythm is still maintained by the node sinoatrial. (1)

auricoventricular Node ritmogénico also has potential, so it can also act as a pacemaker if there are flaws in the sinus node. The bundle of His has the same feature, which could also assume that work if necessary (5).

cardiac cycle

The cardiac cycle is defined as the set of events that occur in heart muscle between beats and other (4). The atria and ventricles alternately contract and relax the blood moving through the chambers or to the aorta and pulmonary trunk. It is divided into two phases (4):

• diastolic rejalación: in which the atrium or ventricle fills with blood.
• systole or contraction, in which the atrium or the ventricle eject their blood.

diastole is said that is a passive process (which does not consume energy) while the systole is an active process where myocardial fibers waste energy (5).

Cardiac Cycle: Systole and Diastole
Taken from youtube.com
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jLTdgrhpDCg

The atrial systole occurs when the atria contract tools that the ventricles are relaxed (1). As noted above, this contraction occurs as a result of the action potential initiated by the sinoatrial node. During this process move 25 ml of blood filling the ventricles finish (1). Importantly, passed 105 ml of blood from the atria to the ventricles during rapid filling phase just before atrial systole. Both atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and mitral) are open at this time. Parallel to this process is occurring at the ventricular diastole .

The ventricular systole occurs when the ventricles contract while the atria relax (1). This contraction occurs as a result of the action potential that travels through the Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers. The pressure within the ventricles rises and the atrioventricular valves are closed. For about 0.05 seconds, both semilunar valves and the atrioventricular are closed. This is called isovolumetric contraction (1) (4).

When right ventricular pressure rises above pulmonary artery pressure (20 mm Hg or so) and left ventricular pressure rises above the pressure of the aorta (80 mm Hg approximately), semilunar valves open and blood flows out of the heart (1). Some authors argue that the pressures to open the semilunar valves is 120 mm Hg to 80 mm Hg aortic and pulmonary (4). Parallel to this process is occurring at the atrial diastole .

When most of the blood has been expelled, the blood in the aorta and pulmonary trunk tends to return and this results in the closure of the semilunar valves.

During ventricular isovolumic contraction, the atria begin to fill with blood again waiting for the opening of the atrioventricular valves. When the amount of blood exceeds certain limit, the tricuspid and mitral valves open and rapid ventricular filling begins. This is the beginning of the next cycle (1).


To read more:
(1) Tortora, Gerald. Derrickson, Bryan. 2006. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 11 th. Edition. Editorial Médica Panamericana. Mexico DF. Mexico. Cap 6.

(2) Bulls, Avelina. Cardiovascular System. Virtual infermeria. Barcelona, \u200b\u200bSpain.
Available online:
http://www.infermeravirtual.com/ca-es/activitats-de-la-vida-diaria/la-persona/dimensio-biologica/sistema-cardiovascular-sistema-limfatic/pdf/sistema -cardiovascular.pdf

(3) Anonymous. Lab Guide. Department of Physiological Sciences. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. Bogotá, Mexico.
http://fisiopuj.tripod.com/Guias/n_ventricular.pdf

(4) Montalvo Diago, Jane A. Anthology of Human Physiology. American University. San Jose, Costa Rica.

(5) Bustos, Jorge. The heart as a pump, the cardiac cycle and arousal rhythm of the heart. American University. San Jose, Costa Rica.

Lip Ring Has A Knot In It?

Classification Classification of Bones

Joints are points of contact between two bones, including bone and cartilage or between a bone and a tooth (1). Are formed flexible connective tissue and help keep the bones together while providing a degree of movement. Structural Classification



The structural classification is based on two criteria: the presence or absence of a space between the bones or cartilages that articulate with each other and the type of connective tissue that holds the bones together (1). Here are the rankings: Fibrous Joints



In fibrous joints two bones are joined firmly by fibrous connective tissue. The variations between them is minimal or absent (2). They also called immovable joints (3). There are 3 types of fibrous joints: suture, syndesmosis and gomphosis. The

sutures are joints where the bones are united by a thin sheet of dense fibrous connective tissue (1), are found only in the skull. With age, some of them are replaced by synostosis, in which the bones are fused into one (1). Some examples of this type of joints are the interparietal suture, intermaxillary and internasal.

The syndesmosis are joints where the bones are united by dense fibrous connective tissue, a ligament or interosseous membrane (1). These only exist at the joints of the leg (tibia / fibula) and forearm (radius / ulna), called distal radioulnar distal tibiofibular.

interosseous membrane between the radius and ulna joint (syndesmosis) Taken from jarcia.net

http://www.rush.edu/spanish/images/si_0061.gif

The gomphosis are the joints that support the teeth to the alveolar process, or between the tooth root and alveolar and jaw. Cartilaginous joints



cartilage in the joints two bones joined by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage (2). Among them there are a range of motion. It also referred to as semi-mobile joints (3). There are 2 types of cartilaginous joints: synchondrosis and symphysis.

The synchondrosis are joints where the material that is connected hilaino cartilage becomes synostosis when growth ceases in length. It is found mainly in the chest and spine and between the epiphysis and diaphysis of long bones (epiphyseal plate). Some examples of this type of joints are the first joints sternocostal the occipitoesfenoidal and disks (or plates) epiphyseal as mentioned above.

The symphysis are joints where the material that connects is fibrocartilage. Allow a minimum amount of movement that occurs through compression or deformation of the intermediate connective tissue. Some examples of this type of joints are the pubic symphysis and the intervertebral disc.



synovial joints in synovial joints two bones separated from each other but united by a capsule, cartilage or joint cavity envelope composed of a fibrous outer membrane (3). Can be seen accessory ligaments, articular disc and synovial membrane or internal pouch where the synovial fluid. Show a degree of movement in more than one axis. Joints are also called mobile (1). There are 5 types of synovial joints: plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle and spheroid.

hand joints
jarcia.net Taken
http://www.jarcia.net/Quiromasaje/Atlas/HuesosyArticulaciones_archivos/mano1.jpg

The flat are joints where the surfaces of that shape or slightly curved (1). Some examples of this type are the intercarpal joints, Sternal, acromioclavicular, cigapofisiaria, and vertebrocostales. The

are hinged joints where a surface convex surface fits into a concave (1). Allow the movement of extension and flexion. Some examples of this type of joints are the elbow, ankle, knee and joints.

The pivots are joints where a surface surrounded or embedded in a ring pointed fomrado part by bone and partly by a ligament (1). Allow rotation. An example of such joints is the altlantoaxial.

The condylar are joints where an oval shaped projection fits into a depression in the same way (1). Some examples of this type are the radiocarpal joint, temporomandibular and metacarpophalangeal. The

saddles are joints where the surface of a bone has the shape (concave) and the other bone (is convex) is mounted on the chair (1). An example of such joints is the carpometarpiana (between the trapezium and the first digit).

Glenohumeral Joint
jarcia.net Taken
http://www.jarcia.net/Quiromasaje/Atlas/HuesosyArticulaciones_archivos/esterno.jpg

The spheroids are joint where a spherical surface fits into a cup-shaped depression (1). Have a high rank mobility. Some examples of this type are the glenohumeral joint and the hip. Functional Classification



The functional classification of joints is related to the quality of movement that allow (1). Here are the rankings:

synarthrosis : joints that allow movement. Some examples of this type of joints are the epiphyseal plate between the epiphysis and diaphysis of long bones, and gomphosis between the tooth root and alveolar process.

Anfiatrosis : limited joint motion. Some examples of this type of joints are the intervertebral symphysis pubis. Synovial

: high movement joints. Some examples of this type are the atlantoaxial joint and the ulnar.

All synovial joints classified structurally and functionally belong to the category of the synovial joints (1). They have a variety of ways, allowing many different types of movement.

To read more:

(1) Tortora, Gerald. Derrickson, Bryan. 2006. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 11 th. Edition. Editorial Médica Panamericana. Mexico DF. Mexico. Cap 6.

(2) Amagi, Atilio. Barranza, Fernando. Rodriguez, Fernando. Lizana, Pablo. Human Anatomy Laboratory. Guide # 1. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso. Faculty of Sciences. Online. Date of Consultation: 15/Enero/2010.
Available at:
http://www.anatomiahumana.ucv.cl/efi/2008/Guias% 202008/Guia% 20Osteologia% 201.pdf

(3) Montoya, Katia. 2009. Anthology of General Anatomy. American University. Faculty of Physical Therapy. San Jose, Costa Rica.